16 Psyche is believed to be the core of a dead planet. NASA plans to explore asteroid 16 Psyche – long thought to be the core of a dead planet – in 2022 to determine if it actually contains the precious metal. worth 10 trillion USD, which means making everyone on Earth a billionaire or not. Before that time, however, a new study suggests that 16 Psyche is more than likely just a pile of debris. Research published in the journal Planetary Science shows that 16 Psyche is composed of 82.5% metal, 7% iron content pyroxene and 10.5% carbon chondrite. It can also have a bulk density – i.e. the degree of free space inside – of 35%. These numbers are much lower than previous estimates that said it could contain up to 95% metals, mainly iron, nickel and gold. NASA has planned to probe the asteroid 16 Psyche, which is said to be filled with iron, gold, nickel and platinum, in 2022. The study’s lead author, David Cantillo, a senior at UA Arizona University, said in a statement: “The drop in metal content and bulk density is interesting because it shows that 16 Psyche is very strong. different than previously thought”. “It would come as a surprise to see Psyche as a pile of debris, but our data continue to show low bulk density estimates despite its high metal content,” Cantillo said. If the “gold-filled” asteroid was more like a wreck and had less metal inside, as Cantillo and other researchers believe, it wouldn’t be that different from other asteroids in the Solar System, for example. like the asteroid Bennu. Now, NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission recently embarked on a 2.2 billion-kilometer journey back to Earth after collecting nearly 1kg of rock and dust from Bennu, which could help shed light on how the Solar System formed. . To arrive at their new discovery, the researchers reconstructed the surface of 16 Psyche in the lab, mixing the different ingredients until the patterns of visible light matched those of the asteroid. “Having a lower metal content than previously thought means the asteroid may have collided with asteroids containing more common carbon chondrites, depositing a surface layer,” Cantillo said. that we are observing”. However, NASA notes 16 Psyche remains a major concern for scientists. It is the 16th asteroid discovered on March 17, 1852 by the Italian astronomer, Annibale de Gasparis. 16 Psyche takes about 5 years to orbit the Sun once, but only 4 hours to rotate on its axis, making the day on this asteroid only 1/6th of the day on Earth. According to EarthSky.org, 16 Psyche has a diameter of 182 km, containing 1% of all metals in the asteroid belt. Watch a simulation video of asteroid 16 Psyche (Source Daily Mail) Even if 16 Psyche is worth less than the $10 trillion figure, it’s still valuable to researchers hoping to learn more about what they believe to be the remains of a long-dead planet. . Study author Cantillo said: “The opportunity to study the exposed core of a planet is extremely rare, which is why they sent spacecraft missions there, but our work shows that 16 Psyche is much more interesting than anticipated.” The researchers also believe that there is water on 16 Psyche’s surface, so they will look to merge their data with other missions to asteroids to determine how much water is present. The $117 million spacecraft — which NASA began building in July 2020 — will go into space aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. It is expected to reach asteroid 16 Psyche in the asteroid belt in early 2026. The spacecraft will travel for 21 months in asteroid orbit, mapping and studying the properties of the giant meteorite, with the goal of determining if it is indeed the core of a planet. Asteroid 16 Psyche has long been thought to contain large amounts of iron, nickel, gold and platinum. The Metal World of 16 Psyche 16 Psyche is located in the large asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and may have started as a planet, before it was partially destroyed during the formation of the Solar System. It is now a 200km-wide block of metal, made up of iron, nickel and several other rare metals, including gold, platinum and copper. Thus, it could provide a unique view of the violent collisions that created the Earth and the planets. NASA’s mission will seek to determine whether Psyche was the core of an early planet, how old it is, whether it formed in ways similar to Earth’s core and its surface. how. NASA will send an unmanned spacecraft mission to 16 Psyche, scheduled to launch in August 2022. 16 Psyche, which could be 370 million kilometers away from Earth, is one of the most mysterious objects in our Solar System, and scientists may soon get a close-up look thanks to a newly identified NASA mission take. If the asteroid could be transported back to Earth, the iron alone would be worth $10 trillion. Its value would be large enough to destroy commodity prices and cause the world economy – worth $73.7 trillion – to collapse. Assuming the market for material from asteroid 16 Psyche is returned to Earth, this could cause the value of precious metals to plummet, completely devaluing all holdings including those of governments and all companies engaged in the exploitation, distribution and sale of such commodities.

16 Psyche is believed to be the core of a dead planet. NASA plans to explore asteroid 16 Psyche – long thought to be the core of a dead planet – in 2022 to determine if it actually contains the precious metal. worth 10 trillion USD, which means making everyone on Earth a billionaire or not. Before that time, however, a new study suggests that 16 Psyche is more than likely just a pile of debris. Research published in the journal Planetary Science shows that 16 Psyche is composed of 82.5% metal, 7% iron content pyroxene and 10.5% carbon chondrite. It can also have a bulk density – i.e. the degree of free space inside – of 35%. These numbers are much lower than previous estimates that said it could contain up to 95% metals, mainly iron, nickel and gold. NASA has planned to probe the asteroid 16 Psyche, which is said to be filled with iron, gold, nickel and platinum, in 2022. The study’s lead author, David Cantillo, a senior at UA Arizona University, said in a statement: “The drop in metal content and bulk density is interesting because it shows that 16 Psyche is very strong. different than previously thought”. “It would come as a surprise to see Psyche as a pile of debris, but our data continue to show low bulk density estimates despite its high metal content,” Cantillo said. If the “gold-filled” asteroid was more like a wreck and had less metal inside, as Cantillo and other researchers believe, it wouldn’t be that different from other asteroids in the Solar System, for example. like the asteroid Bennu. Now, NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission recently embarked on a 2.2 billion-kilometer journey back to Earth after collecting nearly 1kg of rock and dust from Bennu, which could help shed light on how the Solar System formed. . To arrive at their new discovery, the researchers reconstructed the surface of 16 Psyche in the lab, mixing the different ingredients until the patterns of visible light matched those of the asteroid. “Having a lower metal content than previously thought means the asteroid may have collided with asteroids containing more common carbon chondrites, depositing a surface layer,” Cantillo said. that we are observing”. However, NASA notes 16 Psyche remains a major concern for scientists. It is the 16th asteroid discovered on March 17, 1852 by the Italian astronomer, Annibale de Gasparis. 16 Psyche takes about 5 years to orbit the Sun once, but only 4 hours to rotate on its axis, making the day on this asteroid only 1/6th of the day on Earth. According to EarthSky.org, 16 Psyche has a diameter of 182 km, containing 1% of all metals in the asteroid belt. Watch a simulation video of asteroid 16 Psyche (Source Daily Mail) Even if 16 Psyche is worth less than the $10 trillion figure, it’s still valuable to researchers hoping to learn more about what they believe to be the remains of a long-dead planet. . Study author Cantillo said: “The opportunity to study the exposed core of a planet is extremely rare, which is why they sent spacecraft missions there, but our work shows that 16 Psyche is much more interesting than anticipated.” The researchers also believe that there is water on 16 Psyche’s surface, so they will look to merge their data with other missions to asteroids to determine how much water is present. The $117 million spacecraft — which NASA began building in July 2020 — will go into space aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. It is expected to reach asteroid 16 Psyche in the asteroid belt in early 2026. The spacecraft will travel for 21 months in asteroid orbit, mapping and studying the properties of the giant meteorite, with the goal of determining if it is indeed the core of a planet. Asteroid 16 Psyche has long been thought to contain large amounts of iron, nickel, gold and platinum. The Metal World of 16 Psyche 16 Psyche is located in the large asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and may have started as a planet, before it was partially destroyed during the formation of the Solar System. It is now a 200km-wide block of metal, made up of iron, nickel and several other rare metals, including gold, platinum and copper. Thus, it could provide a unique view of the violent collisions that created the Earth and the planets. NASA’s mission will seek to determine whether Psyche was the core of an early planet, how old it is, whether it formed in ways similar to Earth’s core and its surface. how. NASA will send an unmanned spacecraft mission to 16 Psyche, scheduled to launch in August 2022. 16 Psyche, which could be 370 million kilometers away from Earth, is one of the most mysterious objects in our Solar System, and scientists may soon get a close-up look thanks to a newly identified NASA mission take. If the asteroid could be transported back to Earth, the iron alone would be worth $10 trillion. Its value would be large enough to destroy commodity prices and cause the world economy – worth $73.7 trillion – to collapse. Assuming the market for material from asteroid 16 Psyche is returned to Earth, this could cause the value of precious metals to plummet, completely devaluing all holdings including those of governments and all companies engaged in the exploitation, distribution and sale of such commodities.

The Fukang meteorite is auctioned off. Where this extraterrestrial object originated and how was formed is still a topic of discussion among scientists. Coming from an asteroid The Fukang meteorite glows in the sunlight. The Fukang meteorite was discovered near the town of Fukang in Xinjiang, an autonomous region in northwest China, in 2000 by an unidentified hiker. Every day, this person often stops by a giant rock to have lunch and rest. Once, he was suddenly curious about the structure of this object, when he noticed that it seemed to have metal and crystal inside, so he decided to break some pieces and send it to the US for confirmation of the type. He was surprised to learn that these samples did not come from Earth, but belonged to a meteorite. In February 2005, these objects appeared at the Tucson Gem and Mineral Exhibition (USA). Here, it was noticed by Professor DS Lauretta (a specialist in Planetary Science and Astrochemistry at the University of Arizona), who is also the principal investigator of NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission. Then, the remains of the Fukang Meteorite (with a mass of 983 kg, excluding the 20 kg mass smashed by hikers) was directly studied by the University of Arizona (USA). Scientists said that this rock belongs to the type of iron-stone meteorite, called Pallasite. Pallasite meteorites contain olivine, which is thought to come from the crust of a rocky planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. If not from the planet, it could belong to an asteroid with a rocky shell and a metal core. Pallasite can be distinguished by a meteorite iron substrate, embedded with silicate crystals, mainly olivine (a yellow to greenish-yellow crystal). The Pallasite meteorite is named after Simon Peter Pallas, a German naturalist. He was the first to describe Pallasite Krasnojarsk, a 700 kg meteorite, discovered in Russia in 1772. The origin of the Fukang meteorite, like other Pallasite meteorites, has not been scientifically explained so far. It is hypothesized that it originated from an asteroid with a melted and decomposed metal core and surrounding olivine mantle and formed with the solar system about 4.5 billion years ago. In addition to its rarity, the Fukang meteorite, like other Pallasites, is a very beautiful object. When shined through the olivine crystals, the light will make the meteorite glow brightly and spectacularly. Most expensive A cross section of the Fukang meteorite is on display at Arizona State University (USA). Because of this beauty, collectors have always wanted to own pieces of the Fukang Meteorite. The largest part of this meteorite, weighing nearly 420 kg, is currently in the possession of an anonymous collector or group of collectors. In 2008, the above Fukang meteorite was auctioned at Bonham’s, New York (USA) with a starting price of about 2 million USD. A curator and online auction organizer has placed the Fukang meteorite at number one in the “Top 10 Most Expensive Meteorites Ever Discovered on Earth”. However, no one participated in the auction for this treasure perhaps because the price was too high. Meanwhile, other small pieces of the remaining meteorite, have been purchased in auctions and distributed around the world. Particularly, the University of Arizona Meteorite Laboratory (USA) holds a total of 31 kg of Fukang meteorites. Their website describes the Fukang Pallasite as “the most breathtaking example of the splendor of the natural universe”. In February 2021, the famous auction house Christie’s said it had sold “part of the most beautiful extraterrestrial matter known”. That tiny piece of meteorite alone brought the seller $30,000, far exceeding the initial estimate of $3,500 – $4,500. What makes the Fukang meteorite so special? First of all, this is not an “ordinary meteorite”. Pallasite is an extremely rare heaven stone. This is because most Pallasite cannot survive falling into Earth’s atmosphere. It is estimated that less than 1% of rock falling from the sky is Pallasite. Therefore, the Fukang Meteorite is considered by scientists as one of the most important celestial rock discoveries of the 21st century. According to the Planetary Science Institute, based in Tucson, Arizona, USA, there have been about 1,100 observed and found meteorite falls in history. Meanwhile, the number found but not observed goes up to 40,000. The Fukang meteorite is among these. The institute estimates that about 500 meteorites collide with Earth every year, most of which burn up in the atmosphere, the rest fall into the ocean or in remote, desolate regions (According to Science 101).

When the Earth’s temperature rose and the amount of oxygen in the oceans decreased about 252 million years ago, most life on our planet suffered the same tragic fate. It is estimated that this extinction event, also known as the “Great Dying”, killed 70% of species on land and about 96% of species in the oceans. Illustration: Getty However, there are no sharks among them. “They’re the last surviving species,” said Elizabeth Sibert, a paleontologist and identifier of fossils and an oceanographer at Yale University. The next extinction event at the end of the Triassic period or even the meteorite event that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago could not have caused the shark to become extinct. The shark’s survival or longevity is extraordinary, but the animal was also close to the brink of extinction, a study in the journal Science revealed June 3. The study, led by scientist Sibert, shows that a previously unknown extinction event pushed sharks to the brink of extinction 19 million years ago, leaving just one in ten of the sharks. Sharks in the oceans survive. “Something happened and wiped out 90% of the shark population overnight,” said scientist Sibert. The so-called something is still uncertain but it has caused immense destruction. The meteorite that wiped out the dinosaurs on Earth only caused 30-35% of the shark species to be wiped out while the above event was 2-3 times worse. To find this discovery, oceanographer Sibert and his collaborator Leah Rubin went through a remarkable process. Discover the mystery When a marine species dies, its body will fall to the bottom of the sea and decompose into discrete parts. Small parts, such as their teeth, will gradually accumulate in the sediments under the sea. “The seabed is essentially a grave for all aquatic species,” Sibert said. The sediment samples used in this study were collected from two locations in the Pacific Ocean, one in the north and one in the south, covering a period of 40 million years. However, it was not easy to analyze the small teeth inside each of these specimens. These parts are so small, even smaller than the width of a human hair. Oceanographer Sibert filtered dried sediment samples under a microscope and isolated the tiny bits of shark teeth. After separating them, scientist Rubin will identify and describe the features, as well as classify them. These little bits of teeth can reveal a lot to us. There were about 1,300 small tooth pieces identified in the above study with 85 samples with different shapes. Most of them are from the period before 19 million years and only a few samples belong to the later period. So, the question arises, what happened to the sharks? The tip of the iceberg The small tooth fragments suggest a decline in shark numbers and diversity about 19 million years ago, but the cause behind this event is unknown. “This is really a mystery. Right now we don’t know what happened,” Ms. Sibert said. The key to solving this mystery is to learn about the time when the sharks almost disappeared. This period is called the “Miocene” and is described by the scientist Sibert as the “transition phase” of the Earth. 15 million years before the mysterious shark event occurred, the Earth gradually became an “ice house” as permafrost increased in Antarctica. The oceans at that time were no different from the oceans of today, although we cannot find such species as tuna, swordfish and seabirds. Dolphins and whales had not yet evolved. However, there is not much evidence to find out the cause of the shark eradication. Even the discovery, which took place during a rather unusual time in Earth’s history, is just the tip of the iceberg. “There are many questions that need to be answered,” said researcher Rubin. Did some change in the environment lead to the decline in shark populations? This is difficult to confirm because the oxygen and carbon levels show no anomalies, but scientists can use more data around this time stamp. Did the event happen across the oceans and affect other marine species as well? Ms. Sibert said this is a global event but we still need more data. Also, what about other bodies of water? Can sedimentation in lakes and coastal areas occur other phenomena? How were terrestrial species affected during this time? Are there any chemicals that can tell us about the environment then? Ms. Sibert even thought that an epidemic, such as a virus, could be responsible for the decline in shark populations. Still, for this oceanographer, the extinction event was a remarkable phenomenon. The fact that sharks have existed for more than 400 million years, surviving multiple extinction events leads her to believe that something truly intense happened and that the sharks may be the gateway to understanding major changes. collided with Earth during the early Miocene. “There is a lot of data waiting to be discovered,” said researcher Rubin. The discovery not only shows the unpredictable change of the marine environment, but also shows how difficult it is for species to recover when they are pushed to the brink of extinction. “Biology is trying to tell us something and I think we need to listen,” Sibert said.

In what form could life on earth end in the end? Photo: Astronomy Some scientists point out that the earliest life on Earth was born about 4 billion years ago. At that time, the Earth was continuously bombarded by space meteors, but life continued strongly. Earth’s history has seen many catastrophes, and each one is like the end of the world. Supernova explosions, asteroid collisions, large-scale volcanic eruptions, sudden climate changes … these events have claimed countless lives. During a number of mass extinction events, most of the species at that time had been wiped out. In the end, however, life still goes on. There will always be new species on Earth, and a new cycle will begin again. Although human life may be unimaginably fragile, turning the entire Earth into a barren land is not so easy. Here are some events that have the potential to wip out all life on Earth (very low probability and not happening in the near future). The impact of asteroids When an asteroid hits Earth, it releases incredible energy. 66 million years ago, an asteroid the size of a city crashed into the Gulf of Mexico and led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. At that time, all other creatures on Earth were almost wiped out. Although human ancestors were not born at that time, it may be the most important event in human history. Without the asteroid impact, dinosaurs could always be the lord of Earth, and other mammals could only exist in their shadow. According to geological records assessment, the frequency of Earth being collided by large asteroids is about 100 million years. However, smaller asteroid effects occur more often. There is even evidence that some people have died from the effects of asteroids over the past few thousand years. In 1888, in Sulaymaniyah, now in Iraq, a meteor strike killed one person and injured another. This is the earliest recorded asteroid accident. But what is the probability that Earth will be hit by a large asteroid? A 2017 study published in Nature has shown that to cause this asteroid must be large enough. Only the largest asteroids in the solar system (like Pallas and Vesta) can do this. Richard Binzel, a professor of planetary science at MIT, said even though an asteroid might one day come and destroy us, the likelihood is very low. Oxygen depletion Fossil of trilobite, one of the earliest arthropods on Earth. Photo: Shutterstock The chances of the latter being slightly higher than the previous. First, let’s go back to long history. Nearly 2.5 billion years ago, Earth went through a period known as the “Great Oxidation Event” – creating oxygen on a global scale. The increase in cyanobacteria causes a huge increase in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. Without this event, no oxygen-breathing animals would exist and the biological world would not have been diverse, from low-order monocytes to higher multicellular flora and fauna, including humans. However, about 450 million years ago, one of the most serious extinction events on the planet – the Ordovic -Silur mass extinction occurred. It could be due to the sudden drop in oxygen levels at that time, which lasted for millions of years. But why is this happening? During the Ordovic period, all the continents on Earth were connected to form the supercontinent Gondwana. At that time, most life on Earth existed in the ocean, but plants began to appear on land. At the end of the Ordovic period, the Earth’s climate suddenly changed, causing this supercontinent to be covered with glaciers. The sudden drop in global temperature alone is enough to cause the disappearance of many species. Then, when global oxygen levels plummeted, life on Earth experienced a second wave of extinction. Scientists can find evidence of this drastic change in sediment samples on the seabed. Some researchers believe that glaciers at that time caused a fundamental change in ocean stratification, and that the temperature and oxygen concentration of each layer of seawater differ. However, the exact cause of this significant reduction in oxygen is still being debated. Whatever the reason, more than 80% of the species on Earth disappeared during the Ordovic mass extinction. Such events happened in the past, will history repeat in the future? In fact, a recent study published in Nature Communications has shown that climate change reduces oxygen levels in the ocean, which can cause the extinction of some marine life. Gamma-ray bursts Gamma-ray bursts can originate in binary star systems. Photo: University of Warwick Gamma-ray bursts occur when a giant star dies, explodes like a supernova, and collapses into a black hole. It spits out stream of rays at the speed of light in the universe. Any planet in the path of this stream would lose its atmosphere immediately and be burned. When the gamma rays in the explosion hit the blue planet’s atmosphere, they will cause oxygen and free nitrogen atoms to collide, and some will recombine into N2O compounds, the destroyer. ozone layer. N2O is long-lived in the atmosphere, and they continue to destroy ozone until it falls to the ground through rainfall. If there was a gamma-ray explosion in the Milky Way, it could potentially cause the extinction of a large number of species on Earth. If the gamma-ray burst was aimed in the direction of the Earth, even if it lasted only 10 seconds, it would destroy at least half of the Earth’s ozone layer. Scientific research in recent decades has shown that even a small fraction of the ozone layer is destroyed enough to weaken Earth’s “natural protective layer” and cause serious problems. And if the ozone layer is depleted to a certain extent, the Earth’s food chain will be severely damaged, leading to the extinction of a large number of species. Death of the Sun. As the sun continues to age, more and more energy is released, which could eventually wipe out the oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere. Photo: Nasa A study published in the journal Nature Geoscience in March this year showed that regardless of whether or not a gamma-ray explosion occurs, in about a billion years, most life on Earth will die from lack of oxygen. A team of scientists working with NASA believes that this oxygen-rich atmosphere will not last forever. In a billion years, the activity of the Sun will cause the Earth’s oxygen levels to drop back to the levels they were before the “Great Oxidation Event”. The team describes the last moment before the Earth’s inability to support life as follows: “We find that the deoxygenation of the future is an inevitable consequence of increased heat radiation from the Sun. The exact timing of this process will be governed by the redox flow that changes between the geological mantle and the ocean-atmosphere system and the Earth’s crust. ” Conclusions are made after modeling and running simulation based on the algorithm hundreds of thousands of times. The start time and duration of this process will depend on a variety of factors, and can be as short as 10,000 years. But researchers point out that for Earth, in the end, this fate is inevitable. Fortunately, humanity still has 1 billion years left to find another way out.

“This work makes it possible for us to understand part of the study,” said Benjamin Hess, a graduate student in the Department of Earth Sciences and Planetary Science at Yale University and the first author of the study. form life on Earth, and possibly extend to study of planets – life could be forming on those planets in a similar way “. The origin of life also commonly known as the process of life generation (abiogenesis) is a term for the different theories about the formation and development of life on Earth. Of these theories, the most popular up to now are the scientific theories that say: this is the natural process by which life arises from non-living matter, from inorganic substances into single organic compounds. simplified, then evolved into today’s world. As we all know, phosphorus is an essential component of life on Earth. Even looking for extraterrestrial life in space, scientists will look for signs of phosphorus. However, billions of years ago, phosphorus was trapped in insoluble minerals and was difficult to escape and exert its effects. Therefore. This issue has been of interest to scientists for many years, who want to know how phosphorus is converted into an easier to use form, thereby promoting life-generating processes. Researchers suggest that the phosphorus that helps create life on Earth may come from schreibersite, a rare but very common mineral in meteorites. When lightning strikes soil or sand (derived from meteorites) on the ground, it can instantly melt and then solidify to form natural glass – fulgurite (also known as clayey rock. ). These meteors can be submerged, meaning that in the presence of water, the phosphorus in this mineral can be dissolved outward and potentially become part of a chemical reaction. Although the details of life’s formation on Earth are still unknown, the popular scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living entities to living entities is not an event. single, which is an increasingly complex process involving molecular self-replication, self-assembly, autogenesis and the appearance of cell membranes. Although the occurrence of the origin of life is not controversial among scientists, there is no single accepted model for the origin of life. Initially many scientists agreed with this idea, but through intensive research and statistics, they found that from 3.5 to 4.5 billion years before life on Earth was born. The number of meteors on our planet is not enough to be life-boosting factors. In the new study, Hess et al. Proposed that phosphorus on Earth could come from lightning strikes. They believe that this is more likely than that of elemental phosphorus coming from meteorites, because compared to asteroid collisions, the number of lightning strikes Earth each year is relatively stable. “This makes lightning an important way to study the origin of life,” Hess said. The team also used computer modeling to estimate how many lightning strikes occurred on Earth during the critical period in the beginning of life. They found that there could be between 1 billion and 5 billion lightning strikes the Earth each year, and 100 thousand to 1 billion of them falling on the Earth’s surface. Earth remains the only place in the universe known to life, and fossil evidence from Earth facilitates most studies of the origin of life. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years, the earliest irrefutable evidence of life on Earth dates back at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the Ancient Pre-Tai era ( 3.6 to 4.0 billion years ago), after the geological crust began to harden after the molten Hadean Eon. In May 2017, scientists found possible evidence of early terrestrial life in the 3.48 billion year old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around water springs). hot and geysers) discovered in Pilbara Craton, Western Australia. According to the study’s estimates, the number of lightning strikes on Earth could reach 10 ^ 17 to 10 ^ 18 in a billion years. Researchers suggest that under the impact of too many lightning strikes, after 1 billion years, ores formed by lightning strike the ground can release phosphorus that can participate in chemical reactions in the presence of water. In other words, it was lightning in this period that produced enough phosphorus to explain the existence of phosphorus at the origin of life on Earth.

The new-generation Oyster Perpetual Explorer and Explorer II represent Rolex’s relentless efforts to innovate, its relentless quest for outstanding values. First introduced in Rolesor yellow, the next-generation Explorer is equipped with a 36 mm case – the same size as the original 1953. Edition 2021 also comes with a new movement – caliber 3230 and optimized Chromalight display – Rolex-exclusive luminescent materials, have longer luminosity in dark spaces. Rolex Oyster Perpetual Explorer watch Rolex Oyster Perpetual Explorer II watch Some other notable points include a dial with a unique design such as that of the new Oyster Perpetual Datejust 36, or like the striking meteorite dial of the Oyster Perpetual Cosmograph Daytona. Adorned with sparkling diamonds, the latest innovations in the Day-Date 36 and Lady-Datejust come to life under the craftsmanship of talented watchmakers. Rolex Oyster Perpetual Datejust 36 Rolesor case Rolex Oyster Perpetual Datejust 36 Oystersteel case The Oyster Perpetual Cosmograph Daytona watch face meteorite Inheriting Rolex’s heritage and embracing the brand’s founding spirit, the Perpetual, these watches continue innovations and innovations for more than a century in engineering, design and function. Today, this is more than just a phrase on the dial. It is a philosophy – a relentless quest for values ​​to discover and to share human knowledge in order to build a better world. The exquisitely crafted Rolex Oyster Perpetual Day-Date 36 The meticulously encrusted diamonds represent the skill level of the craftsmen at Rolex The Rolex Oyster Perpetual Lady-Datejust watch is encrusted with diamonds in 18ct gold Every smallest detail is elaborated to make the masterpieces for life Perform: Tuan Anh

Odd nature Previously, science only defined the concept of crystals, treating them as solid objects with homogeneous unit cells arranged in a periodic structure. For crystals, a unit cell can only be in the form of a cube, tetrahedron, or octagon. From rock to diamond, all crystals in the universe contain 14 symmetrical structures, each of which consists of a base cell and many atoms arranged in a special way, in which the their position is repeated periodically in three-dimensional space. When the idea of ​​pseudocrystals appeared, people believed that they did not exist in nature, but were only synthesized in a laboratory. Because, certain order of the atoms in pseudocrystals does not repeat the period, giving them innumerable symmetrical structures. Decoding the pseudo-crystal mystery can help science find a solution to the origin of the universe. Science goes crazy about pseudocrystals. Countless theories emerged, some even believed that this strange matter was sent from a distant galaxy inhabited somewhere in the universe. The appearance of pseudocrystals changed everything, ushering in the era of researching a distinct form of solids existence, in which the atoms arranged seemingly regular but without repetition. Experts call pseudocrystalline an “unpredictable unknown” in the universe, breaking the inherent harmony of the world of microscopic atoms. Others say crystal imitation is like a stray note, being “dropped” into sentences deposited between notes in the right rhythm to make a difference. The difference is the non-periodicity of the pseudocrystalline, which lacks translational symmetry. The experiments revealed an interesting fact: when translationally displaced a pseudocrystalline sample, the resulting image does not match the original. This goes against the inherent nature of conventional crystals, characterized by translational symmetry that causes the unit cells to be arranged according to a clear pattern. Because they are not repetitive, the pseudocrystals create many forms of rotational symmetry, which can be observed from many different angles with the same original pattern. For example, Florence pseudocrystalline found in a meteorite falling in the Khatyrka region (Russia) has the form of a 20-sided polyhedron (dichotomy), allowing observations from 60 different angles. Unique minerals The uniqueness of the fragment of a meteorite containing pseudocrystalline Florence lies in the aluminum metal (Al) composition, which raises a big question about the mechanism of pseudocrystalline formation in the universe. Experts also found iron and copper, and compounds of the two metals and aluminum on the meteorite. This is strange because so far, copper does not react with aluminum, unless there is human interaction with certain catalysts, otherwise the “mother of Earth” always separates the two metals. this. The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) has recognized that this dichromatic pseudocrystalline carries a new kind of mineral, with a different chemical composition with the chemical formula Al63Cu24Fe13. In early 2021, experiments at the California Institute of Technology (CIT) investigating three oxygen isotopes confirmed that the pseudo-Florence crystal was most likely from a carbonaceous chondrites meteorite – a material unlike anything on Earth. , formed within hours of the solar system’s birth, is regarded as a space rock, albeit quite pliable. Accordingly, studying this asteroid opens the opportunity to learn about the time of the Sun’s birth. The discovery of many metal isotopes suggesting the formation of the Sun is related to gravitational collapse (the phenomenon of extremely rapid contraction of large masses under gravity), caused by waves. shock from the nearby supernova explosion. Man has always believed that pseudocrystals do not exist in nature because certain order of atoms in pseudocrystals do not repeat the cycle. Yet, science is focusing on decoding strange minerals from space to develop the theory of evolution of the solar nebula, thereby understanding more about the history of the universe. These are pseudo-dichroic crystals with the mineral stishovite (crystallized by dense silica), traces of ringwoodite in meteorites (formed when the olivine mineral is pressed together by extreme pressure and exposed to a medium less pressure), or rare metal compounds such as aluminum-copper and nickel-iron. The most widely supported view believes that metals appear first in the solar nebula, then suffer the “shock” from an extremely strong asteroid impact before “clinging” to the surface of the asteroid. undergoes undetermined reactions to form foreign minerals. Complex structure For the first time, science has admitted finding traces of pseudocrystals in a meteorite, marking a new stage in the race to explain the origin of this matter. The mystery remains, regarding the reason why pseudocrystals appear in nature, and the mechanism by which atoms in pseudocrystals form a complex structure beyond existing theory. From here, two opposing schools were born. The perturbation theory believes that pseudocrystals are made up of atoms in a chaotic state, randomly linked into symmetrical clusters, after which the clusters will flexibly interact with each other, making the pseudocrystalline a zero shape. stability, then gradually decay. On the contrary, Paul Steinhardt, professor of science at Technion University (Israel), proposed the possibility that the atoms in the initial pseudocrystalline attract each other and form clusters with the form of pentagons, hexagons or many “senses”. other. These “senses” are then under the effect of a mysterious force to interact with other “senses” around, forming a certain shape. At that time, the clusters of atoms are bound together, gradually falling into a non-periodic state, creating pseudo-crystal. This connection is scientifically described exactly the property of the Penrose pattern (a famous concept in architecture created by two types of tiles that seal a plane in a non-periodic style). Paul Steinhardt argued that the atoms in pseudocrystals form clusters of many “senses”. While examining Florence’s pseudo-crystalline structure, some evidence confirmed it contained a new pseudo-particle named “phason”, which reverses the atomic clusters, breaking the rules of bonding between them. when one particle interacts with other matter. This finding reinforces confidence in the possibility that crystalline pseudo-crystallinity is completely natural, and emphasizes Paul Steinhardt’s hypothesis as being valid. Besides, science is also very active in learning about the stability properties of pseudocrystals. Two proposed mechanisms, mutually reinforcing in the existence of pseudocrystals, include arbitrary mechanisms and entropy mechanisms (chaotic measurements – the origin for understanding the dynamics of galaxies and the universe). . As the entropy value increases, some of the atoms in the pseudocrystalline vibrate and spin, thereby trying out “spontaneous” bonds, in multiple positions before they are “locked” into a specified position. . Atomic clusters can also overlap, sharing atoms under the influence of arbitrary binding mechanisms. Research on the pseudocrystalline model in the laboratory found that the stability of this material depends on the electron / atom ratio. Therefore, science speculates that the electron possesses the ability to stabilize the atom clusters. However, more evidence is still needed to confirm the stability of pseudocrystals in nature. Obviously, the journey to decode the pseudo-crystal is still very long, with many difficult questions. How, for example, does aluminum, copper and iron coexist inside alloys to form unusual minerals. The presence of aluminum in some meteorite samples raises the question of the metal appearing early in the formation of the solar system. More importantly, whether there exist other types of pseudocrystals in nature, and what kind of forces “lock” the clusters of atoms together. Answering these questions will help science sketch a new picture for the future of physics, while moving closer to the solution to the greatest mystery of all time: this universe ultimately comes from where…

Illustration of lightning hitting Earth 4 billion years ago.

However, according to geologists, lightning strikes are just as important as meteorites to create perfect conditions for life on Earth.

Scientists believe that the minimum amount of minerals present on early Earth was caused by billions of lightning strikes.

Detect important minerals

A study published in Nature Communications led by scientist Benjamin Hess of the School of Earth and Environment, at the University of Leeds (UK) looked at the possibility that lightning could contribute to life.

The scientists found that life could develop on Earth-like planets through the same mechanism at any time if the atmospheric conditions were right.

Hess et al. Studied an exceptionally large and primitive fulgurite sample. This is a rock created when lightning strikes the ground. This model was formed when lightning struck a house in Glen Ellyn, Illinois (USA) in 2016 and donated to the Geology department at the nearby Wheaton College.

The Leeds researchers were initially interested in how fulgurite was formed, but were later intrigued when they discovered that there was an unusual amount of a phosphorus mineral called schreibersite in the sample at Glen Ellyn.

Phosphorus is essential for life and plays an important role in all life processes from movement to growth and reproduction. Phosphorus has been present on Earth since infancy and is in minerals that cannot be dissolved in water, however, schreibersite can.

Mr. Hess is a graduate student at Yale University, Connecticut (USA), said, “Many people believe that life on Earth originates from shallow surface waters according to the famous” small warm pond “concept of the house. Darwin Science ”.

“Most models of how life might form on the Earth’s surface show that meteors carry small amounts of schreibersite.

Our research found a relatively large amount of shreibersite in fulgurite “- he said -” Lightning hits the Earth regularly, which proves that phosphorus is necessary for the origin of life on the Earth’s surface not only. rely on asteroid collisions.

Perhaps more importantly, this also means that the formation of life on another Earth could still take place long after meteoric collisions became rare.

The phosphorus minerals produced by the lightning bolts exceeded those from meteorites when Earth was about 3.5 billion years old (the age of the earliest known microscopic fossils), the team estimated. That underscores the importance of lightning to life on Earth.

Furthermore, lightning bolts are much less destructive than meteorite collisions, meaning they are less likely to interfere with fragile evolutionary paths in which life can
develope.

The fulgurite was excavated in Glen Ellyn, Illinois (USA).

The role of lightning quantity

Lightning is also a topic of interest to scientists when thinking about life on Earth in the early days because it leads to the production of gases like nitrous oxide that played a role in the origin of life. .

Hess and his other researchers used this existing research to investigate and review the rate of lightning strikes on early Earth. Today, we have 560 million lightning strikes a year.

Meanwhile, early Earth, this number was from 1 to 5 billion per year, of which 100 million to 1 billion lightning strikes the ground. Over a billion years, lightning strikes can reach 1 trillion and generate a lot of phosphorus.

In the early days, lightning struck more on Earth because there was more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide contributes to global temperatures and the higher the temperature, the more intense and frequent the storms are, Hess said.

“Carbon dioxide levels soared on Earth early after a Mars-sized object crashed into Earth and created the Moon 4.5 billion years ago. This also releases a lot of gas from inside the Earth, like carbon dioxide, which then gets trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere and leads to more lightning, ”explained Hess.

The fulgurite fragment is found in Glen Ellyn, Illinois (USA).

Expert review

Dr., Associate Professor of Geochemistry Jason Harvey and Professor of Geology and Structural Construction Sandra Piazolo at Leeds University’s School of Earth and Environment advised Mr. Hess on the above research project.

“The initial meteor bombardment was a one-time event in the Solar System,” said Dr. Harvey. When the planets reach their mass, the additional distribution of phosphorus from the meteorites becomes negligible.

On the other hand, lightning is not a one-off event, the elements necessary for the formation of life can thus be transferred to the surface of a planet. This means that life can appear on Earth-like planets at any given time.

Meanwhile, Professor Piazolo said: “The above interesting research opens the door to some future paths when searching for and analyzing in depth new fulgurite in the early Earth-like environment, analyzing The effect of heating on other minerals is to realize similar characteristics.

There is also a further analysis of this particularly well preserved fulgurite to determine the extent of the physical and chemical processes within it ”.

“All these studies will help to improve our understanding of the importance of fulgurite in changing the chemical environment of the Earth over time” – Professor Piazolo added.

In the water season, or when the flood overflows, even though the herbaceous plants have been drifted away, the industrious still cling, rising from the mud. In the past, gardening people pulled this tree to eat through hunger. Then so, the days passed gradually, industrious became the specialty vegetable dish of the people of the South, with high economic value. Currently, these vegetables bring to urban areas cost a few tens of thousands of dong to hundreds of thousands dong a kilogram and sometimes still “out of stock”.

Vegetable spinach.

Processing the industrious vegetables in the Mekong Delta style is very simple. Raw edible spinach is considered to be the best, retaining its nutrients when dotted with braised fish and braised fish juice. The crunchy, supple stalks combine with the richness of the dipping sauce to create a rustic but delicious dish! Or when there is no food at home, pick up a bunch of spinach, wash them, cut them into pieces, boil them with boiling water, pick them up with soybean sauce, soya sauce, and soy sauce all run out of the bottom of the pot of white rice. A little more picky can be salty. Salted and sour salted islet (for a few days), often served with main dishes such as braised meat, fried fish … Stir-fried island with shrimp, meat, heart is the favorite drink of gentlemen. .

Cu Neo also appears in hot pot dishes of the Southern people. Especially hot pot sauce, fish sauce warehouse, if there is a lack of industrious (or tai Tuong vegetables), even a multitude of other raw vegetables will feel lacking something. Not only hot pot sauce but also in the sour soup pot of Western people, industrious to help increase the taste, strange taste. Because in that fragile amaranth, there is a mild acrid taste, a light sweet taste and a salty taste of alluvial flavor.

Earth has been 4 billion years old since its birth in the universe. In the long history of the Earth, the stars, planets, satellites, asteroids in the universe along with the Earth have all had a fixed or uncertain mode of action. The formation of the Solar System, the Moon, asteroids crashing into the Earth, comets … prove that claim.

As the development of human civilization took shape on Earth, we began to explore the mysteries of the universe and our own planet.

Humans have discovered countless impact craters on Earth formed by the “falling stars” that once crashed into the Earth. These “falling stars” are then referred to as “meteorites / asteroids”, and the traces they leave on Earth are known as “meteorite craters” or impact craters.

It can be said that the crater is a symbol and evidence of the intersection of cosmic objects and the Earth. Not only that, some scientists who support the “exogenous” theory even believe that the water and energy necessary for life on Earth today are due to the impact of meteorites and comets.

Although this is not supported by strong evidence, the craters are still very valuable to scientists studying celestial celestial bodies. It is of great significance for the study of the formation and evolution of the Earth, the change in climate, the environment and animals in ancient times, the role of biological processes and mineralization.

Today, many meteorite holes have been discovered, through studying them, people have discovered many unknown secrets from ancient times as well as unique minerals created when Huge asteroid collided with the Earth.

THE LARGEST THIEN THIEN THE PLANET

According to the report of the Earth Impact Database released in 2016, worldwide there are about 190 impact craters detected so far. And the planet’s largest, oldest and most severely eroded asteroid crater is Vredefort Crater in South Africa.

The Vredefort asteroid crater is a crater that has existed on Earth for 2 billion years – it is the result of a meteor’s shock impact with the Earth at speeds right between 40,000 and 250,000 km / h. The diameter of the Vredefort Crater exceeds 300 km, making it the largest and oldest meteorite crater in the world (second after the Yarrabubba crater in Australia (2,229 billion years old), NASA updates for 2020.

The Vredefort meteorite hole in South Africa.

This huge meteorite hole is located in the Free State province, South Africa. Because the crater is so large, local people do not realize it is the “legacy” from the “meeting” of the Earth and meteorites. However, its enormous size has attracted scientists and geologists from all over the world.

In 2005, the United Nations decided to include the Vredefort impact pit on the list of World Heritage Sites in need of protection.

LOOK AT THE PAST – FORWARD TO THE FUTURE

Talking about the crater / meteorite hole, many people do not know the Chicxulub (Yucatán peninsula in Mexico), 150 km in diameter, occurred about 65 million years ago.

Many scientists believe that perhaps the extinction of a generation of dinosaurs on Earth at that time was related to the climate change due to the impact of this meteorite.

Likewise, as the world’s largest crater, the formation of the Vredefort Crater should have had a serious impact on Earth’s climate and biological evolution. We just haven’t figured out exactly what it has affected and how it affects it.

Before that, the United Nations formed a scientific research group, based in South Africa, and conducted scientific research in the Vredefort crater for seven years. In the end it was asserted that the meteorite’s destructive power plunged into Vredefort enough to change the climate and the structure of the African plate. Scientists are continuing to study the long-term effects from Vredefort’s earlier.

What is different from Vredefort’s other meteorite craters in the world is that it has grown from what should have been abandoned into a city complete with hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, and generations of people have been in This huge crater is like a peaceful paradise.

Scientists said, meteorites that plunged into the Earth may leave large “scars” for Earth on the bottom of the deep sea. Because the asteroid craters we’ve found so far are all above ground.

Due to the very large and deep seabed area, scientists currently do not have enough technology to conduct detailed investigations. Therefore, the impact crater on the sea floor remains an unsolved mystery in the scientific world. If you want to research, you must go through a long process of discovery by scientists, and this will also be the direction that scientists need to strive for in the future.

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