The 2,000-year-old marble head of Emperor Augustus has just been unearthed. Photo: CNN “While we were digging behind the wall, I saw the soil change color,” said Giancola. So we continued to dig carefully and discovered a block of marble. I immediately recognized it as the head of Emperor Augustus due to the hair and the shape and cut of the eyes.” According to archaeologist Maria Diletta Colombo of the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, the head of the statue is about 35cm high, possibly dating from 20 BC to 10 AD. This head may have been detached from the more than 2m tall statue, which is also made of Lunigiana marble. This statue most likely depicts the young Emperor Augustus Octavian. “This is a very important finding; However, archaeologists have not been able to determine why the head of Emperor Augustus is in that area. The head of this statue should have been placed in a temple or a certain area reserved for the Royal Family.” The town of Isernia, known as Aesernia in the ancient world, was the land of the Samnites, Italy. Later, the town became a Roman colony. In this land, scientists have discovered many archaeological remains, including medieval tombs and terracotta artifacts… Despite being heavily damaged in World War I 2, but this land has gradually revived strongly. Currently, the local government is promoting heritage promotion activities to attract tourists to visit. Augustus (63 BC – AD 14) was the first Emperor of ancient Rome. Augustus replaced the Roman republic with an effective monarchy. He laid a very important foundation on which to build a powerful Roman empire, stretching from Great Britain to Egypt.

Photo: BBC Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was born on the island of Corfu, Greece on June 10, 1921. Among his family were many members of the Danish, German, Russian and English royals. Photo: Alamy Prince Philip is the only son of Greek Prince Andrew and Princess Alice of Battenberg. Photo: BBC His Highness started studying in France, at the American school MacJannet. The photo above is of him as a child (second from left) and his schoolmates. At the age of seven, he went to live with relatives of Mountbatten in England and attended a preparatory school in Surrey. Photo: PA He later attended Gordonstoun boarding school founded by educational pioneer Kurt Hahn in northern Scotland. Here, he demonstrated himself excelling in sports. Photo: BBC This is said to be the first joint photo between Princess Elizabeth (3rd from left) and then naval student Philip, Prince of Greece and Denmark (who wears the white top right hat). . This photo was taken during a visit to the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth on July 23, 1939. Photo: PA During World War II, Prince Philip was a lieutenant in the navy on the battleship HMS Valiant. When the Italian fleet was stranded off the coast of Greece in 1941, he commanded the lights to illuminate the enemy. Photo: PA His engagement to Princess Elizabeth was officially announced in July 1947. Photo: PA The couple’s wedding took place on November 20, 1947. Photo: BBC In 1951, a photographer captured the moment the Duke of Edinburgh jumped off a water ski while reaching the beach in Marmarice, Turkey. The photo was taken during his last time in command of the HMS Magpie. Photo: PA Prince is playing polo for club Cowdray Park in the semi-final of Roehampton Cup. He is one of the top bridge athletes in the UK. Photo: PA The Prince is also a good cricketer. The photo above shows his cricket team, which includes many former British stars playing against the Duke of Norfolk’s team. Photo: BBC A photo of Prince Philip with his wife and four children in the 1960s. Photo: PA Prince Philip and Queen Elizabeth during a visit to a farm on their Balmoral estate to celebrate the couple’s “silver wedding” anniversary. Photo: PA In 1977, the Prince accompanied the Queen to attend the 25th anniversary of her reign. Both wore Maori Kahu-Kiwi (Kiwi feather cloak) when attending the opening of the Royal New Zealand Polynesia Festival at the rugby park in Gisborne, on New Zealand’s North Island in February of the same year. Photo: PA In August 1979, the Queen’s cousin Lord Louis Mountbatten was killed in a bomb attack in Ireland. His Majesty returned to England after the news, while he was in the coach driving championship in Normandy, northern France. Photo: PA Nature and conservation are the Prince’s lifelong passion. He has been recognized as the International President of the World Wildlife Fund. Photo: PA His Highness and family members watch a demonstration of the Royal British Air Force in 1985. Photo: PA In 1996, His Highness welcomed South African President Nelson Mandela on a British tour. Photo: PA The Prince has always stood by and supported the Queen during more than 60 years of reigning England, including the 50th anniversary of her throne in 2002. Photo: PA The Prince has founded the Duke of Edinburgh Prize in 1956 with the aim of developing the talent of young people. The above photo shows the Prince happily chatting with the gold award winners at Holyroodhouse in 2010. Photo: PA His Majesty continued to compete in sports as he got older, including the horse-riding event at Sandringham in 2005. Photo: PA Thousands of people gathered outside Buckingham Palace to greet the Royal Family after the wedding of Prince Philip’s grandson Prince William to Catherine Middleton in 2011. Photo: BBC A year later, the Prince still looked in good health as he accompanied the Queen on the Spirit of Chartwell royal barge to attend her 60th anniversary parade on June 3, 2012. He and the Queen stood for most of the 80-minute parade on the River Thames. However, His Highness was hospitalized for a bladder infection ahead of the great celebration concert on June 4. Photo: BBC After recovering, the Prince joined Princess Anne to watch the British horse racing team compete at the London 2012 Olympic Games. Photo: PA In June 2013, His Highness attended a church ceremony at Westminster Abbey on the 60th anniversary of the Queen’s coronation. Photo: PA In 2014, the Prince accompanied the Queen on a trip to Northern Ireland. The above photo shows him signing in a tourist scrapbook at Hillsborough Castle, Belfast. Photo: PA The Prince and Queen light up the first of more than 200 lighthouses to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany at Windsor Castle. Photo: PA Prince and Son – Prince Charles chatted happily during his visit to Poundbury, an urban area on the edge of Dorchester, where the Queen held the inauguration of her mother’s statue. Photo: PA In April 2017, the Prince and his wife attended the opening ceremony of the Elephant Care Center at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire. However, in May of the same year, he announced his withdrawal from public activities at the age of 95, with the full support of the Queen. Photo: PA Before kicking off a party at Buckingham Palace Gardens on May 23, 2017 with the Queen, His Majesty spent a minute commemorating the dead at the Ariana Grande concert in Manchester. Photo: PA On June 10 last year, Prince Philip quietly celebrated his 99th birthday at Windsor Castle in the context of the British blockade against the Covid-19 pandemic. In a new announcement, Buckingham Palace said he passed away on the morning of April 9 at old Windsor.

For 5000 years of Chinese history, there are “very few” emperors who can be called “benevolent emperors” and “ming emperors”. Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, but was called: “tyrant”. Liu Bang, the emperor of the Han Dynasty, established the foundation of the Han Dynasty, but he still couldn’t get rid of the taint of killing the heroes of the Han Dynasty by “flying birds with good bows. Emperor Taizong of Tang, who realized the “rule of Zhenguan” in the prosperous period of the Tang Dynasty, couldn’t help but regret the consequences of the Xuanwu Sect’s change. Song Taizu Zhao Kuangyin “Chen Qiao Mutiny”, “Yellow Robe added to the body”, “Glass of wine to release military power.” It is inevitable that people will “cold heart all sorts of”, “Yangwen suppressed martial arts”, it has created the tragedy of the Song Dynasty showing weakness. And is it true that Mingjun Renjun is the fourth emperor of the Song Dynasty, “Song Renzong Zhao Zhen”.

Born to be miserable

There is a play in Chinese opera called: “The civet cat changes the prince”, and the protagonist in it is Song Renzong Zhao Zhen. The story of “racing cat for prince” is now known as “a household name.” The legendary experience of the protagonist Song Renzong Zhao Zhen makes people feel distressed, and everyone knows them. During the reign of Song Zhenzong, Concubine Liu and Concubine Li became pregnant at the same time in the late years of Zhenzong. In order to fight to be the empress of the palace and the queen of the palace, Concubine Liu made a scheming plan and replaced the son of the Li family with a skinned civet cat, slandering Consort Li Gave birth to evildoers.

Song Zhenzong was “furious” and beat Concubine Li into the cold palace and made Concubine Liu his queen. Later, when the sky was angry and the people complained, the son of Concubine Liu died, and the baby boy born to Concubine Li was established as the prince and ascended to the throne after going through ups and downs. This is Song Renzong Zhao Zhen. Finally, with the help of Bao Zheng, Renzong learned the truth and confessed to his biological mother who had been blind, while Liu, who had been promoted to the Queen Mother, hanged himself in fear of sin. This is the result of the drama, but the truth is not the case. .

In the end, Song Renzong Zhao Zhen was convicted of unfilial piety by Bao Zheng. He took off his dragon robe and beat the emperor. Finally, the Queen Mother Li was relieved of anger before he took his biological mother back to the palace. It was also another opera “Dragon Robe”. The provenance. I have never seen my own biological mother and never enjoyed maternal love. This shows how sad Song Renzong Zhao Zhen was born!

The record of Song Renzong Zhao Zhen’s life experience in Song history is not as mysterious as in the opera, but the circumstances of birth and circumstances are similar. Song history records: Renzong’s biological mother, Li, was originally the maid of Empress Liu when she was a concubine. She was solemn and reticent. Later, she was favored by Zhenzong and became one of the concubines in the harem. Before Concubine Li, Empress Zhenzong had given birth to 5 boys, all of whom died one after another. At this time, Zhenzong was distraught, embarrassed that no one would succeed to the throne.

When Li was pregnant, he traveled with Zhenzong and accidentally touched the jade hairpin. Zhenzong secretly said: If the jade hairpin is intact, he will be a boy. The jade hairpin was fetched from left and right, and it was as good as ever. This legend reflects the eagerness of Zhenzong to be thirsty for children from the side, and it is also a true portrayal of Zhenzong’s helplessness to ask for help from the gods. Although it is not entirely credible, it is certain that Li did give birth to a baby boy. Zhenzong’s middle-aged son was naturally overjoyed.

Song Renzong Zhao Zhen still had time to open his eyes to remember the face of his biological mother. With the acquiescence of his father, Zhenzong, he was “taken as his own son” by Concubine Liu, who had never been able to give birth, and was raised by Concubine Liu and Concubine Yang Shu. The birth mother, Li, was frightened by the power of Empress Liu, and could only watch her child being taken away by others, but she did not dare to show any dissatisfaction. Otherwise, she would not only endanger herself, but also bring disaster to her own son. In the end, Song Renzong’s biological mother, Li, died inexplicably. Everyone knew the stakes involved, and only then would there be suspicions and suspicions that the civet cat changed the emperor.

It was not until the death of Empress Liu, that Renzong Zhao Zhen became an adult and became an adult. He only knew the deeds of his biological mother and knew that he was not Empress Liu’s son. So when he knew about this, he felt so much pain in his heart.

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Retry

Enthroned without power, lenient Liu E

In the first year of Qianxing, Song Zhenzong Zhao Heng died of illness. Zhao Zhen, who was only 13 years old, inherited the throne and was known as Song Renzong in history. Because Renzong was too young, the Queen Mother Liu E first listened to politics, and Song Renzong became a powerless puppet emperor. All things big and small must be approved by the Queen Mother before they can be implemented.

As Emperor Renzong gradually grew up, Empress Dowager Liu E did not intend to “return politics to power”, but continued to listen to politics and handle national affairs on behalf of Song Renzong. This made Song Renzong who had a big revenge very distressed. The empress dowager Liu E died of illness in the second year of Ming Dao, and Song Renzong became pro-government in 1033. So he started the “Renzong ruling the world” under his rule.

It was only after the death of the Queen Mother Liu E that a group of officials played the matter of Song Renzong’s biological mother. So Song Renzong, who had just taken office, “sorrows and joys”, the joy is that he finally takes office and can perform his own big revenge. The sad thing is that he has never seen his biological mother, and the empress dowager Liu E is just an adoptive mother.

According to the minister’s account, the queen mother Liu E was the murderer who killed her own mother. She originally thought that Song Renzong and Zhao Zhen would “Settle after Autumn”, Abolish Liu E’s position as queen mother, and make her own biological mother the queen mother. However, the confirmation of this eternal benevolent gentleman made us unexpected and admired. Its method is to retain the Queen Mother Liu E’s position as queen, and enter the Song Zongmiao with his mother. Song Renzong’s “benevolence” was “extremely incisive” at this point, and he used his “benevolence” to forgive Liu E.

Eternal Renjun

Song Renzong’s benevolence lies in the Great Song Dynasty and in the later dynasties. Zhongdu is very famous and is known as “the first man in the ages.” , I think this good name should be “deserved of its name.” As the fourth emperor of the Song Dynasty, he had the supreme position and had the right to live, kill and seize. However, Song Renzong did not abuse his power. Historical records: Song Renzong tried and tried again every year during the execution of the Autumn Judgment. After checking and checking again, he was afraid that one of his own negligence would cause the end of an innocent life under the red pen.

Song Renzong had the supreme power as the emperor, but he was full of awe of heaven, earth and nature. According to historical records: Song Renzong was hungry and wanted to eat roast mutton. However, taking into account the needs of the people in the palace, he followed suit. He was worried that after he ate roast mutton at night, the people would kill sheep every day and kill people. Endure it.

On the second day, the waiter beside him said why not let it be delivered? Song Renzong said at this time: “If I can’t bear a momentary hunger, I will cause endless killings, and I will be violently sending heavenly things.” Now it seems that there is such a natural awe of heaven and earth, the emperor is really rare. Song Renzong’s benevolence is benevolence into the bones, between benevolence and thousands of living beings, and it is the blessing of the people of the Song Dynasty.

According to historical records, Song Renzong was walking in the imperial garden once, because he was thirsty and wanted to drink water, but the attendant did not bring the water because of his negligence. According to the emperor in the past, he would definitely be furious, and under the wrath of thunder, corpses were everywhere. However, Song Renzong’s approach made us unexpected. Song Renzong not only did not blame the waiter, nor did he ask the waiter to come and fetch the water. Because the imperial garden was far away from the palace, Song Renzong worried that the waiter had to go back and forth for a long time and hard work. Instead, he held back his thirst and kept returning. When I arrived at the palace, I started to drink water by myself. An emperor, an emperor who has the power to live and kill, does not rely on his own convenience in everything, but first considers the feelings and consequences of others, and thinks for others, which is really difficult and difficult.

Song Renzong’s “benevolence” is not only for thousands of living beings, not only for the waiters around him, but also for the ministers and scholars of the Song Dynasty to the extreme. Regarding the state affairs and personnel appointment and dismissal of the Song Dynasty, Song Renzong would adopt the method of court deliberations to make decisions, rather than acting alone. There are historical records, Song Renzong wanted to promote his favored Zhang Meiren’s uncle “Zhang Yaozuo” to Xuanwei’s ambassador. After discussing with the prime ministers, he took justice to the court, but he just proposed this plan. Yu Shi Bao Zheng Bao Qingtian The first one to stand up against it.

To know this Bao Zheng is “iron-faced and selfless”, and the master of “righteousness” can be said to see who he is. . In the face of Song Renzong, Bao Zheng never gave up his principles and must exercise his right to imperial history. Bao Zheng angered Song Renzong: This is the reputation and credit of the “super-excellent” Zhang Yaozuo, it is impossible to get this position, only relying on the merits of his niece as a beauty, and has no contribution to the country! When Bao Zheng was angry with Song Renzong, his attitude was “extremely violent.” When he spoke, the “spit stars” danced and splashed on Song Renzong’s face, making him embarrassed and annoyed. In the end, he could only cover his face with long sleeves. Bao Zheng’s “Spitting Star”, did not speak, swallowed his breath, and gave up this proposal.

We must know that in the feudal dynasty where the monarchy is supreme, this is a great disrespect to the emperor, and this is to prevent the emperor from getting off the table. To put it among other emperors, Bao Zheng was worried about his life, Xiang Shang was no longer there, and he would surely end up robbing his family and annihilating the clan. However, it was Song Renzong, who was such a “benevolence” who became a famous official of the Song Dynasty. Not domineering, not domineering, do not use power to suppress others, let alone bully others, it is even rarer to be the emperor of the “Ninth Five-Year”.

The stars hold the moon

Song Renzong is a good emperor who “exercises benevolent governance” and a good leader who loves “talents”. For the love of talent, he” eagerly “First of all, he knew to govern the country well, To “rule the monarch and his subjects at the same time”, we must have talents , The vision is unusually unique. Song Renzong attached great importance to the imperial examination and reached the top of the glory of the Song Dynasty. And the strategy and history of the Song Dynasty’s “reporting literature and suppressing martial arts” created a world of literati and also created the Song Renzong dynasty. All the stars hold the moon “The literati world. It also achieved Song Renzong’s “Renzong Shengzhi”, achieved the world’s great governance, and achieved a flourishing age.

Among the eight great masters of the Tang and Song Dynasties, 6 were from the Renzong dynasty of the Great Song Dynasty. The great writers Su Shi, Su Xun, Su Che, and the three fathers and sons were all promoted by Song Renzong and became “famous” and “famous throughout the ages.”And Wang Anshi, Sima Guang, Ouyang Xiu, Zeng Gong, Song Qi, these literary superstars also became a world literary hegemony through Song Renzong’s care and love. . Fu Bi, Han Qi, Wen Yanbo, Fan Chunren, these famous ministers from the Song Dynasty also came from the love of talent. Zhang Zai, who “sets the heart for the heaven and the earth, sets the destiny for the life and the people, continues to learn from the saints, and opens peace for all generations”, is a famous minister personally selected and reused by Song Renzong.

People like Shen Kuo, Su Song, Cai Xiang, Wen Tong, etc. are all talents discovered and promoted by Song Renzong through imperial examinations. , The famous minister Bao Zheng Bao Qingtian was also a talent selected by Song Renzong. It was Song Renzong who made Bao Zheng’s first generation of integrity, and made him a famous minister in the flourishing age, and made him fearless of power, upright, and selfless.

Famous officials like Yan Shu and Fan Zhongyan were created by Song Renzong I. They straddled the Great Song Dynasty. Zhong Jiajun, who planted Shiheng and Di Qing, who made the Daliao “fearful”, were promoted and reused by Song Renzong, and also defended the Song Dynasty. Of the country.

Therefore, the real “universal rule of the emperor and his subjects” was regarded as the real “simultaneous rule of the emperor and his subjects” in Song Renzong’s dynasty. Other dynasties are shouting slogans, to truly achieve “the ruler of the monarch and his subjects”, how big the mind and courage the emperor has. Few emperors can do it.

Childless successor

Song Renzong was lucky. In any dynasty, talents came out in large numbers, and the emperor and ministers together created the “” Renzong Shengzhi year of great governance, but Song Renzong was also unfortunate. Unfortunately, he had no children.No one inherited his last wish, no one inherited his first aspiration . The middle-aged Zhao Zhen, who had no children at his knees, brought Pu Wang Zhao Yun to the thirteenth son Zhao Zongshi (later renamed Zhao Shu, Song Yingzong) to join the palace and handed over to Queen Cao to raise him and was determined to be the crown prince. However, in the second year of Baoyuan, Zhao Xin was born because of Concubine Miao, Zhao Zhen of Song Renzong sent Zhao Zongshi out of the palace again.

However, Zhao Xin, the prince born to Concubine Miao, died, and Song Renzong cried bitterly for three days. Then all the princes born to other concubines also died. Song Renzong Zhao Zhen was in poor health and experienced the loss of three consecutive sons (Zhao Xin and Yang Wang Zhao Fang). (Jing Wang, Zhao Xi)’s trauma, and his heart is heavy, and the court is deeply concerned about the issue of the emperor’s heir. After repeated persuasion by Prime Minister Han Qi and ministers Bao Zheng, Fan Zhen, Sima Guang, etc., Song Renzong Zhao Zhen formally established Zhao Zongshi as the crown prince in August of Jiayou, and gave him the name Shu. Think about how painful Song Renzong felt when he made this decision.

Sorry to collapse

In February of the eighth year of Jiayou, Song Renzong Zhao Zhen could not afford to be seriously ill. On March 29, Song Renzong Zhao Zhen died at the Funing Hall in Bianjing, at the age of 54. The posthumous name was Emperor Wu Mingxiao, the title of God Wen Sheng, and the temple name was Renzong. In October, he was buried in Yongzhao Mausoleum. According to historical records, after the obituary of the death of Zhao Zhen of Song Renzong was sent to the Liao Dynasty, “people in the Yan realm cried no matter how far or near.” Yelu Hongji of the Liao Dao Zong also grabbed Song Shi’s hand and mourned: “Forty-two I didn’t know the military revolution in years.” Then he said: “I want to build a burial mound for him, and put his grief on him.” Since then, the monarchs of the Liao Dynasty have “honored him as their ancestors”.

After his death, the monarchs of other countries can cry so bitterly. It is estimated that only Song Renzong can “have this honor” in history. It can be seen that Song Renzong’s benevolence has crossed thousands of mountains and rivers to integrate into other countries. Called the second in history, no one dared to be the first.

Conclusion

Reigned for forty-two years, Song Renzong, who was the longest emperor in the Song Dynasty, created a prosperous age, “cultivating with the people” and “cultivating with the country”, he made history, and he made the first emperor of the Song Dynasty. , It was he who made a world famous minister. But God did not accomplish him, even if he was on the throne for another ten years, even if he was given a chance to choose his son to inherit the throne, perhaps the tragedy of “Jingkang Shame” in the late Northern Song Dynasty would not occur.

Therefore, Song Renzong’s life was “high driving and low going”, and the tragic ending also had to make people of later generations regret.

Episode 12.

Just like in Greece, the process of birth, development and completion of the republic was associated with a long and fierce class struggle. Until the 3rd century BC, the state reached a complete level. The aristocratic Republic of Rome consisted of the following bodies:

1.Garitan Congress: The Congress of Military Units and also the Congress of the People, the highest authority of the Roman State, consists of 193 military units. The Franciscan congress is held twice a year, in Mac-fiber Square (Mars the god of war). This congress has the powers and duties of electing generals annually, electing high-ranking state officials, deciding domestic and foreign affairs of the country, issues of war and peace.

2. Consul: Is the head of state, is a high-ranking official in the ranks of Roman officials. In Rome there were usually two consuls. This position was elected by the Congress of Zion, selected from among the great nobles, for a one-year term. The two consuls had great military and civil power, the commander-in-chief of the army, and the power to convene the Senate Congress and the Scottish Congress.

3. Senate: Inherent from the monarchy, including powerful aristocrats. It was an office of the gentile clan, had between 300 and 600 people, and by the end of the republic had up to 900 people. It was a quasi-permanent organ of the Franciscan Congress, great power at times overwhelming that of the Xenturi Congress. The Senate has the power to approve the appointment of high-ranking officials of the Warsaw Congress, to pass congress resolutions, to administer state property, to interpret laws, to recommend building new rule. The Senate also has the power to formulate and direct domestic and foreign policy, the right to appoint a court, and order preliminary investigations of cases. The Senate also oversees the Roman religious affairs.

4. Consular Council: An executive body, elected annually by the Geneva Congress, consisting of high-ranking officials in the ranks of mandarins. This agency has the power to manage all state affairs, oversee law enforcement, has the power to fire subordinate bureaucrats, and to command the military.

5. Council of Judges: A council of seven people, elected by the annual Congress of Zion. This is the jury of the Roman court, specializing in criminal and civil cases. In addition, when the Consular Council is absent, the Council of Judges performs the duties of the Consular Council.

6. Supervisory Institute: Also known as the important people, is an important agency in the Roman state apparatus. This House has the right to suspend the implementation of all decisions of the Senate and of the Franciscan Congress if those decisions harm the interests of the people. The Institute also has the power to arrest public officials suspected of crimes.

In addition, there were many different high-ranking officials in Rome. All are responsible for their actions, if they commit crimes, they will be prosecuted before the law.

The clergy plays an important role in the political life and in the state apparatus. From the founding of the country until before 313 BC, Rome followed polytheism due to the religious influence of the Greeks. Accordingly, the god Jupiter (Jupiter) is considered the supreme god, creator and ruler of the universe. Juno) in charge of marriage, family, Venus (Venus), goddess of beauty and love, Mac-fiber (Mars): in charge of war, and so on.

But in 63 BC, Rome conquered the Palestinian region. So Judaism and later Christianity entered Rome. By AD 314, the Roman slave owner officially adopted Christianity as the state religion.

In short, the Roman State was a slave-headed aristocratic republic, in which the power of the gentile clan was still very strong. So in the class struggle, the popular posture and the industrial and commercial aristocracy were not capable of a complete victory over the gentile nobility, leading to in the 1st century BC, the generals, the gentlemen. the clan overthrew the republic again, established a dictatorship and monarchy.

In 82 BC, Xila established a dictatorship and declared dictatorship for life. In 46 BC, after defeating two political opponents, Crassals, Pom-pe (Pompey), Judi-ut Caesar (Julius Caesar) established a military dictatorship. But in 44 BC, Caesar was stabbed to death by an enemy while presiding over the Senate meeting. Shortly thereafter, all authority in Rome was in the hands of Ogre-via-buttons (Octavinus). In the year 27 B.C., Oc-ta-via-knot received the title Ogut, meaning the one of dignity, that is, Snail-ta-node, became Emperor. The republic collapsed and Rome entered a monarchy.

The change in Roman state institutions was also in the force correlation of the class struggle. At that time, due to the invasion, the Roman land expanded, the economic power of the land slave owner was strong, the Roman colony existed to popularize the form of large estate, a great estate to use. thousand of labor slaves. The strong economic power made the agricultural aristocrats to win the political struggle, to establish a dictatorship and monarchy.

Slaves in the 1st century BC together rose up to fight against the brutal exploitation of the slave master, such as the Nazi-cut revolt (Spartacus 73-71 BC). Although the rebellion was fiercely suppressed by the Roman slave owner, thousands of slaves were killed and their heads were piled on the great road from Rome to the periphery. However, slavery and the Roman state after that great uprising also collapsed. Besides the enslaved insurrection, there is also the struggle movement of peoples invaded and enslaved for self-liberation. To have the power to suppress slaves and the colonial people, Rome needed a strong government: dictatorship and monarchy.

Following Snail-node, Rome underwent emperors such as Ciligua – the insane king, Co-Diuu-fiber (Claudius) – the weak king, Nero– the greatest tyrant in the ancient history of the world. He slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians, killed wives and children, killed his brother, murdered the famous idealist and philosopher Sehemiah (Seneca) and eventually killed the Queen Queen. , the mother of y.

In 476, the Roman Empire perished. Europe ended slavery and entered a new socio-economic form: Feudalism was born during the dissolution and collapse of the giant Roman empire.

II.The Law

1. Roman law of the republic: The law of 12 pounds

Due to the struggle movement of the common people and the master of slaves and the mercenaries against the arbitrary manipulation of the judiciary in the judiciary, in 450 BC, a committee of 5 common people and 5 nobles was formed to write draft a written law. By 449 BC, this commission had finished drafting the law. The code is engraved on 12 bronze planks (the number 12 is the lucky number from the European point of view) and is placed in a public place for all to see, so the code is called the “Rule of 12”.

The 12-pound law clearly reflects the economic and social relations of early Rome in the republic. The main content of this law is to protect the property rights of wealthy slave owners. The law stipulates that anyone who trespasses on other people’s property such as theft, crop damage, home trespassing (burning a house) will be executed. If a thief enters a house, if he is killed, it is legal to kill the person.

The law sets out the cruel penalties for debtor. If the debtor fails to pay the debt on time, the court allows the creditor to arrest the debtor. During the 60 days of detention, the debtor was taken to the square three times on the day of the fair for the court to judge. After 60 days of detention, still unable to pay the debt, the creditor took the debtor out of the way. If you’re unlucky and still can’t pay the debt, the debtor can either be killed or sold overseas. Where the debtor owes many creditors and cannot repay, the creditors have the right to hash the debtor into pieces.

In terms of marriage and family, a man’s power is absolute. The husband manages the property. When a daughter gets married, it depends on her husband and father-in-law. The father has the right to sell his child as a slave. If sold for the third time, the son will be free from the bonds of the father. The law allows fathers to strip children of inheritance. The dying person is left with property for anyone. In order to protect the rights of an heir under the will, Zionariah has the authority to oversee the distribution of that property.

The 12-table law has a number of provisions on civil proceedings, but these provisions are cumbersome, cause difficulties and troubles in the process of adjudication and do not create favorable conditions for commodity economy. develope.

2. Late Roman republican law

The last period of the republic started from the 3rd century BC until the destruction of the republic (1st century BC). That was the peak period of the Roman empire. The territory covered from the West to the East, the commodity economy was thrived, the agriculture of a large estate was strong. All of them are the basis for the development of the law and vice versa, the economy and social relations themselves also need a comprehensive legal system to serve that infrastructure itself.

In the late republic, the sources of Roman law included:

– The decisions of the consuls. The consular documents were later codified by the famous jurists in the East Roman imperial advisory council and submitted to the emperors for application.

– Decisions of a powerful agency like the Senate.

– The court decisions: sometimes the judgment is just using customary law and it becomes the source of law.

– The decisions of the governor of the provinces.

– Legal practices: Ethnic customs in localities are raised into legal norm by the state.

– The works and works of Roman jurists while summarizing, summarizing and codifying the law.

On the basis of a rich source of law, Roman law includes the following contents:

– Institution on civil law

In Roman law, the civil institution was the most developed, the widest scope of regulation. These are the institutions of property rights, contractual relationships, and inheritance of property. The content of the institutions is rich and detailed.

+ About ownership: Roman law introduces the concept of ownership. It is the absolute right of use and disposition over that property. But the owner is still restricted by law, or by coercion by the state. For example the state wants to let a canal carry water through the land of the owner, who is forced to accept, etc.

+ Ownership: It is the ownership and the will to exercise that right over the property of others to serve its own benefit. The most common form of tenure at that time was land possession. The person entitled to possession may use the benefits brought about by the land and must pay the land rent to the owner. More specifically, possession means the right to rent the property of others for use (renting land, renting shops, etc.).

(There’s more)

CVL